A spectre is haunting Europe—the spectre of Communism. All the Powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre: Pope and Czar, Metternich and Guizot, French Radicals and German police-spies.
Karl Marx, “Communist Manifesto”
So who is this Metternich, and why his important enough to let Karl Marx think he is one of the primary enemies of the Communism? In the revolution of 1848. At that time, he was the prime minister of Austria. When the people revolutionized, he fled from the Austrian capital, Vienna to London, England, and take refuge there. When he rushed out of Austria, he was dressed as a woman. The European newspaper at the time produced a satirical cartoon with him wearing a women’s dress, and an oversized nose, which portraits him as a layer, also coward.
The image Metternich had left in the history was not pleasant. It was an image of a speculative stirrer of Europe. But today let’s talk about this person, not with this pretext but return to the historical background, and ask that question: “Who is that Metternich, and why he is important.
Graf Klemens von Metternich.
The Balance of the Power
Back to this stage of history, Metternich was one of the most famous diplomats in European history. His life was tied to one idea, “balance of power.” When we talked about the concept of a “balance of power.” isn’t what should be the British’s role instead Austrian?
The British have always been the counterbalance of power in history; that is, Great Britain can not allow any nation on the European continent to break the equilibrium. The British diplomatic history, it can be summarized in one sentence, that will be, to prevent the emergence of a powerful and aggressive hegemonic state on the European continent.
The British oppose any rising power in the European continent and suppress the growth of such power becomes her priority. Whoever a country rises in Europe, soon enough they will find themselves in conflict with Great Britain. In the 16th century, the Spanish and English fought fiercely, cause the destruction of the Spanish Armada. Then, throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, English contend with the French. The peak of the war was to defeat Napoleon in the famous Battle of Waterloo. After Napoleon, the next rising power was the Russian tsar, so in the first half of the 19th century, the British fought against the Russians. Then the second half of the 19th century, Germany united and become the primary threat, so the guns were turned to the German.
After world war one, the British allowed Nazi Germany to annex the small neighbor, which is also a representation of this idea of the balance of power, to stop France from taking over the continent. Later in World War II, doesn’t matter how much they dislike the Soviet Union and Joseph Stalin, they join forces anyway to achieve the balance and maximize their interest.
That it’s not difficult to understand British foreign policy, Because the United Kingdom is an offshore island, the main interests of the British Empire are in the oceans of the world. As long as there is no centralized power in the European continent that can directly challenge the homeland, the security of the empire can be guaranteed.
Therefore, the idea of the balance of power diplomacy is relatively clear for the British, but the stage of Metternich is in Austria, which is a landlocked country. How can a landlocked country balance the situation?
Click the link to check the full description and a map of Britain’s Splendid Isolation Policy in late 1800s.
Napoleon
On the mainland, kingdoms should followed the cruelty geopolitics. If one country has more land, others will have less, it is all about the arms race; how can a balance of power be created?
Napoleon emerged from the French Revolution, was just a soldier at first, became a general at the age of 24 and later became the commander of the French army. He crowned himself and became the emperor, ruled Europe for more than a decade; it was the era Napoleonic. The general impression today of the Napoleonic era was that French conquered and battled all over Europe; on their way, the most crucial opponent was the British and the Russians. But if we go back a bit more, before the British and Russians became a trouble, Napoleon’s number one enemy was Austria.
Let’s go back to 1793. In 1793, it was the climax of the French Revolution, the most tragic year. The guillotine stood in Paris, and the heads were rolling. King Louis XVI was executed even thou his reputation was not too bad in comparison, and his attitude towards the revolution was soft, he was killed anyway. In the eyes of the monarchs surrounding France, it was shocking. What they witness is a bunch of mobs overthrow the crown and execute all the lords. It was a direct challenge to European’s tradition and political order. A coalition of all Monarch was formed with an interfering force, and Austria was its leader. There is also another critical reason for Austrian, that is, the queen of Louis XVI was Antoinette; she is Austrian, a member of the royal family of Habsburg, emperor’s relative. It was the first coalition, with all the monarchies in Europe march to France, then it failed.
The first coalition was defeated, Napoleon was able to gain fame from the battle of Toulon, and it became a huge step for him on his way to becoming who he later will be.
The Austrian emperor believed a country like France, just after a revolution; will not have the power to defend themselves from the mighty Austrian empire. So in 1799, the Austrian emperor began to organize a second coalition. At the time, Napoleon was leading his army in Egypt; he was too far away. But the Austrian MMonarch did not expect how Napoleon’s respond. He uses such an opportunity as an excuse and rushes back to France alone. Then a coup was launched, and he made himself the Premier Consul. The second coalition gives him the opportunity he needs; then he went to Italy and took his army and crossed the Alps. Crossing the Alps has a specific meaning for the Europeans. In ancient time, Hannibal was the first general crossing the Alps and march to Rome; now it is Napoleon’s time.
Ragdoll Imperialism
Metternich began a hundred years of peace through his series of performances at the congress of Vienna 1814; the European enjoyed the order and harmony for the hundred years to come. This long peaceful era was strange in European history, before and after this period, Europe was always a subject of a battle royale. Of course, there were exceptions during this peaceful era, such as the Franco-Prussian War and the war of German unification. But the duration of those conflicts was short, a few weeks most, and impact was never significant. There were wars outside of Europe, such as the Crimean War, the British and the French shade their blood on Russia soil. After all, within Europeans, a century of peace was well kept, and it created an illusion, many Europeans believe there will be no more wars between the white people anymore until world war one knocks them back to reality.
To understand the congress of Vienna, we must establish some background knowledge of Metternich, Austria, and the Napoleonic War.
Bismarck believers an empire is established on the foundation of iron and blood, but that was not the case for the Hubsburg.
Vienna
In 1814, Napoleon was defeated by the Sixth Coalition. At that time, the coalition countries were in Vienna discussing the post-war order. However, Napoleon secretly returned to Paris, forcing Europe to unite for the seventh time to defeat him once more, and the Vienna Congress resumed.
When Napoleon was first overthrown, the Bourbon monarchy, which had been toppled by the French Revolution, was restored, with Louis XVI’s brother becoming king as Louis XVIII. He ascended to the throne with the support of the Coalition. When Napoleon returned to Paris again, Louis XVIII fled hastily, and later regained his throne with the Coalition’s support. Throughout this process, Louis XVIII appeared both cowardly and ineffective, making his treatment at Vienna predictable.
Now, imagine if you were Louis XVIII’s foreign minister, Talleyrand, tasked with securing the best possible outcome for France at the Vienna Congress. It is likely that aiming for maximum benefit would be overly ambitious; ensuring France’s survival would be a considerable achievement. This is not only because Louis XVIII ascended to the throne with foreign support but also because, during the Vienna Congress, Coalition forces were still stationed on French soil, leaving France’s fate out of its own hands.
The main players at the Vienna Congress were the key countries of the Coalition. Firstly, there was Prussia, which harbored deep resentment towards France. During Napoleon’s time, France had nearly annihilated Prussia, forcing it to accept humiliating terms for survival. Now, with France defeated, Prussia was eager to seek revenge. Secondly, there was the Austrian Empire. Although Austria is a small country today, it was a top European power back then. Just a few years before the Vienna Congress, it was known as the “Holy Roman Empire,” regarded as the successor to the Roman Empire—a status acknowledged by Europeans for over a thousand years. This proud identity was abolished by Napoleonic France, deepening Austria’s enmity.
Another major country was Tsarist Russia. Three years earlier, Napoleon had led France into Russia and burned Moscow. Although Napoleon eventually lost the Russian campaign, the burning of Moscow was a humiliation that Russia could not forgive. Lastly, there was Britain. After Napoleon conquered almost the entire European continent, he enacted the Continental System to blockade Britain economically, causing significant damage to Britain, which also held a grudge against France.
Facing these formidable enemies, Talleyrand not only ensured France’s survival but also preserved all its pre-Revolution territories and reestablished France as one of Europe’s five major powers at the congress.
How did Talleyrand achieve this? The key lies in his profound understanding and precise application of the principles and tactics of international politics.
Talleyrand’s Principles and Tactics
First, let’s examine Talleyrand’s principles, his understanding of the deep principles of international politics. Talleyrand knew that after the Napoleonic Wars, all countries were exhausted and desired peace. Based on this, he grasped two principles: first, the balance of power in Europe was essential for maintaining peace; second, material balance alone was insufficient—consideration of the legitimacy of the order was also necessary. If countries had conflicting views on legitimacy, dissatisfaction would lead to attempts to change the status quo, making peace difficult to achieve.
With these principles in mind, Talleyrand’s diplomatic goal became clearer: to make France an indispensable part of Europe’s balance of power and to advocate a widely accepted view of legitimate order. By adhering to these principles, he could guide his adversaries into following his lead.
These principles provided the goals, and the next step was to use specific tactics to achieve them. Talleyrand observed that, despite their shared animosity towards France, the coalition countries had little consensus and many internal conflicts, offering opportunities for divide and rule.
First, he targeted Britain. Britain valued the balance of power on the European continent, as it allowed European countries to check each other, enabling Britain to focus on overseas expansion. Talleyrand made Britain understand that excessively weakening France could strengthen Russia, disrupting the balance of power. This aligned Britain with France.
Next, Talleyrand turned to Austria. Austria had territorial concerns and conflicts with both Russia and Prussia. Alone, Austria could not confront these powers and needed French support, making it easier to sway Austria. Thus, France gained the support of both Britain and Austria, reestablishing itself as a key player in the European balance of power, despite opposition from Russia and Prussia.
However, this was still insufficient. Talleyrand introduced the principle of legitimacy at the spiritual level of international order. Legitimacy opposed the revolutionary principle, which sought to overturn traditional order. Since the French Revolution, the revolutionary principle had alarmed European countries. After finally suppressing Napoleon, countries sought to prevent future revolutions.
Talleyrand proposed the principle of legitimacy, advocating respect for legitimate monarchical rule. This principle garnered the broadest consensus among European countries at the time. Traditional monarchies were more likely to reach a consensus on this principle, as opposed to revolutionary ideals that lacked widespread agreement. Talleyrand’s legitimacy principle received strong support from the Austrian Empire, which governed diverse ethnic groups with a relatively weak imperial government. Returning to longstanding traditions was the only way to unify these groups.
Russia and Britain also supported the legitimacy principle, preferring to avoid further revolutionary disruptions to European order. As a result, Prussia, eager to punish France, found itself isolated and had to reluctantly agree to the principle of legitimacy.
Following this consensus, the next question was the rightful monarch of France—Louis XVIII, who had been restored to the throne. His legitimacy was based on his family’s centuries-long rule, which other countries were inclined to respect as it aligned with their own traditions. Respecting France’s legitimacy meant preserving its pre-Revolution territories; otherwise, it would undermine Louis XVIII’s authority and, by extension, the principle of legitimacy, risking internal revolutionary challenges in other countries.
Thus, Talleyrand, through his deep understanding and skillful application of these principles and tactics, successfully preserved France’s pre-Revolution territory and reestablished it as one of Europe’s great powers.
Metternich’s Crucial Role
It is important to note that Talleyrand could not have achieved this alone. As a defeated nation, even with a diplomat as skilled as Talleyrand, France’s influence was limited. Fortunately, another top diplomat played a crucial role—Austrian Chancellor Metternich, known as the “Coach of Europe.” The international system established by the Vienna Congress was largely orchestrated under his leadership.
Metternich and Talleyrand, despite their different national perspectives, shared a similar understanding of the principles guiding European affairs. Their mutual respect and common strategic vision facilitated a cooperative relationship. Mastery of these principles allowed them to influence the international stage, forcing other countries to align with their strategies.
While tactics can be relatively straightforward, relying on basic human nature and game theory principles, understanding the underlying principles is more challenging. However, Talleyrand’s case demonstrates the practical importance of these principles.
International order is a system composed of multiple countries, constraining each country’s choices. Analyzing and understanding this system’s internal logic is the essence of these principles, shaping the space for tactical operations. High-level diplomacy requires revealing and promoting these principles, ensuring other countries recognize and adhere to them, and then using tactics to steer the process towards favorable outcomes for one’s own nation.
This analytical approach is not only applicable to international politics but also to inter-company and intra-company competition. As a participant in these arenas, one needs to grasp both principles and tactics.
As the era of the Industrial Revolution and political revolutions progressed, European power struggles entered a new phase. The contest between maritime and terrestrial orders reached new heights, revealing deeper implications crucial for understanding today’s world order.